What does it cost to reach orbit?

Steps

1. No API. Downloaded both NTRS PDFs and read them with pdftotext -layout. Table A1 (page 8) was parsed into 36 rows; Table A2 (page 8), Table 1 (page 3) and the abstract (page 1) of paper A and Table 1 (page 2) of paper B were parsed from their text. Each row was checked at its page (the expected text and the printed page number), and each cost per kg was recomputed from its cost per launch and payload (tolerance 0.2 percent, because the published $M costs are rounded). The paper's own text claims were recomputed from Table A1.
2. Cost per kg to LEO = cost per launch divided by the maximum payload to LEO. The paper says it is the usual approach and that smaller payloads, payload accommodation and limited volume often raise the cost per kg. For commercial vehicles the cost is the advertised price, not the vehicle's cost to its maker, and development cost is not included.
3. 2018. Paper A converts every cost from its reported year to 2018 dollars with the Consumer Price Index (Appendix A, page 8; page 3). Readings taken from the abstract of paper A and from paper B are shown as reported, without adjustment, and are labelled so.

36 launch systems from Table A1, 4 from Table A2, 2 from Table 1 and 10 readings. Unit: Thousands of 2018 US dollars per kilogram delivered to low Earth orbit ($k/kg), unless a row says ISS. Every derived figure on this page (changes, indexes, averages, counts) is computed from the published rows, and the table under each chart says how.

Checks

• Every figure is read from the page it is cited to; the script checks the expected table caption and the printed page number first.
• Table A2, Table 1, the abstract and paper B's Table 1 each recompute from their own cost and payload (within 0.2%, because the published $M costs are rounded). Table A1 and Table A2 agree on the four vehicles they share.
• Claims in the paper's text recompute from Table A1: 22 systems first flown 1970 to 2000 (paper: 22), their average 18.64 against the paper's 18.5, only the shuttle and Pegasus XL above $32k, a factor of about 23 (shuttle over Falcon 9 in Table A2), 4.2 to the ISS and about 170 (Vanguard over Saturn V).
• One text claim does not recompute: the paper says 7 of those systems cost under $10k per kg; Table A1 has 5 (Dnepr, Long March 2E, Long March 3B, Zenit 2, Zenit 3SL). The page uses Table A1.

Caveats

• These are a 2018 snapshot compiled by one NASA engineer, not a NASA cost audit. Costs per launch for older vehicles come from other compilations (Koelle 1991, Wertz and Larson 1996, Futron 2002 and others; each row names its reference), and for the Falcons and Saturn V from SpaceX's advertised prices and a news article. Cost per kg divides by the maximum payload, so a launch that flies lighter costs more per kg. Commercial prices and government costs are different things. The paper's Table A1 caption says current dollars while its text and Table A2 say 2018 dollars; they are the same figures. No later vehicle (Starship, SLS) is covered, because no NASA table of cost per kg for them was found in the public-domain record, and prices have changed since 2018. The shuttle figure depends on which cost and which payload are used, which is why the page shows the range.

Releases and revisions

• Both papers are fixed documents (2017 and 2018); the NTRS record for ICES-2018-81 was distributed on Feb 25, 2020. This page does not change unless NASA publishes a newer table.